Gangadhara Murthy

When I started studying Hindu Temples and their evolution, I was naturally drawn to their sculptures almost as much as, or even more than their Architectural aspects.

The multitudes of representations of various Gods and the mythological stories associated with them is astounding. Be it the main Gods Siva, Vishnu, Shakti, Karthikeya or Ganesha or the minor Gods, they all have multiple, varied and amazing representations.

As most of us are aware, Shiva the supreme God is represented in 64 forms artistically (both in paintings and sculpture). These 64 forms of Shiva represent the manifold aspects of the Supreme Being, illustrating the various divine activities, qualities, and attributes that Shiva embodies, from the formless absolute to fierce manifestations and benevolent interactions with devotees and the cosmos. Each form, signifies a different cosmic or spiritual principle, emphasizing Shiva's role as a creator, preserver, and destroyer, as well as the ultimate source of grace and liberation.

The major Symbolisms reflected in Siva's Forms include

• Different Divine Activities and Attributes  
• Cosmic Principles representing the eternal cycle of creation and destruction
• Form and Formlessness  
• Benevolence and Wrath (Anugraha Murthys and Samhara Murthys)
• Grace and Liberation 

One of these forms of Shiva is Gangadhara Murthy  - which literally means one who is bearing Ganga, which then becomes one of the attributes on his head/ hair along with the Moon, Datura flower, a skull etc.

Gangadhara - Puranic Representation and Painting in Lepakshi (The net)

I specifically noticed (for the first time) a Gangadhara Stone Sculpture in the Vimanam Portion (Karna koodu) of the Valisvara Temple at Thiruvaliswaram – a hidden Chola Gem (10th Century), standing in the Pandya land in the Tirunelveli District. This was part of  a Thenkasi tour with Culture Circuits, in 2022. It was a beautiful sculpture - the grace, the proportions, the expressions and of course the intimacy, romance and dynamics between Siva and Parvathy – an all too human and familiar concept, immortalized in stone.

Gangadhara in the Vimanam of the Valisvara Temple (me)

Gopu, our docent, explained about the Legend behind Gangadhara and the different styles of depicting Him.

The Legend...

The story of Gangadhara is the climax of a long tale which starts when a powerful king named Sagara performed the Ashva Medha yaga, sacrificing 100 horses. However God Indra hid the 100th horse, as he didn't want the Yaga to be completed. 

The King sent his 60.000 sons in search of the horse. They followed its trail to where a great sage, Kapila, was meditating. They concluded he must be the thief and disturbed his meditation. The heat of Kapila’s anger burned the 60.000 sons of king Sagara to ashes. They became roaming ghosts as no funerary rites were performed for them.

Several generations later, one of the King's descendants Bhagiratha, was told, the water of the heavenly river Ganga would purify the ashes of his 60.000 ancestors and would liberate their souls from their wandering. Hence King Bhagiratha wanted to bring Ganga, the celestial river, to earth. After a long penance, Brahma granted him the boon. 

But Ganga warned him that the force of her descent from heaven could destroy the earth. Bhagiratha then prayed to Lord Shiva who stepped in to help — first by breaking the force of the Ganga’s descent from heaven by capturing her in His hair, and second, by reducing it to a manageable and non-destructive flow and only then allowing Ganga to touch the earth. 

The story of King Bhagiratha bringing the river Ganga to Earth is primarily recounted in the Ramayana, specifically in the Bala Kanda, and also appears in the Mahabharata and the Narada Purana. 

Because Shiva captured Ganga in his locks and holds her there, He got the name Gangadhara.

The Great Penance Panel at Mahabalipuram showing Bhagreethas tapas (me)

The Iconography ...

According to Gopinath Rao, in classical śhilpa tradition, as Gangadhara

• Śiva is usually standing with his right leg straight and left leg slightly bent.
• He has four hands (rarely eight).
• The upper right hand lifts a lock of hair (holding Ganga). Ganga appears seated or descending within his matted hair (jāṭā), often shown as a small female figure above the crown.
• The lower right hand is in abhaya hasta or embracing/placating Parvati, if she is there.
• The lower left hand may embrace Parvati or rest on his hip and the upper left hand typically carries a deer (mṛiga) or a hatchet (paraśu),
• Parvati may stand to his left, her posture often complementary to him facing towards or away from him.
• Bhagiratha may be there near his right leg.
• Ganesha, celestials and other devotees may be present.

Pallava Gangadharas ...

Pallavas have created several Gangadharas, of which the important ones are at -

Tiruchirappalli – Lalitankura-Pallavesvara-Griham -

Although this temple is more famous for Mahendravarman I's inscriptions, on the western wall, is a large bas-relief of Shiva as Gangadhara, often termed the masterpiece of the Mahendravarman I period. 

The base (adhisthana) of this panel has a railing with lotus patterns, similar to Buddhist stupas.

Shiva himself is standing in tribhanga with one leg firmly on the ground and the other leg resting above the head of a gana. The left hand of the gana supports the ankle of Shiva’s leg while his right hand is carrying a snake. Shiva has four hands, upper right hand is holding a tress of his hair, upper left hand is holding a deer, lower right hand is carrying a snake and lower left hand is on his hip. 

On his right is shown Ganga, depicted in a female form, descending on to his tresses. On his jata makuta, he is also wearing the moon to the left and a skull to the right.

On the top corners are shown two flying vidyadharas with their one hand raised in adoration and the other hand on their waists. At the bottom corners are shown two devotees kneeling on their feet and raising one hand in admiration. Behind them are two rishis.

The narrative panel and relief style, balance of composition, scale and stance of Shiva and the fluidity makes this a beautiful piece of art in granite.

Pallava Gangadhara Panel (From the Net...)

Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram-

There are 2 beautiful Gangadharas in this temple, attributed to Rajasimha and built between 685-705AD.

The first is found as a Koshta murthy in the main temple.

Shiva stands in a heroic pose, receiving Ganga, to his left, in his hair. One of his left arms is raised to hold up the hair while the other is in a welcoming gesture. His left foot is raised and His consort Parvati lovingly holds his raised knee, while standing somewhat bashfully on his left side.  

The uniqueness of the sculpture lies in the fact that both Ganga and Parvathy are on the same side, creating an unusual composition and of course in the beautiful smile and expression of Shiva, which is a Pallava signature and speciality.

This sculpture truly depicts Thirugnanasambandar's words

" கடுத்து வரும் கங்கை தன்னைக் கமழ் சடை ஒன்று ஆடாமே தடுத்தவர்"

Shiva blocked Ganga with minimal effort. Not even a single hair was dishevelled in the process. 

Koshta Murthy (Net and me)

The 2nd relief panel is found in one of the mini shrines. A lot of its original beauty is lost in restoration

Shiva receives Ganga, again to his left, by holding up his hair with one of his 8 arms. His left foot rests on the shoulder of a kneeling figure. Parvati holding the same, looks adoringly at him. Ganga holds her hands in anjali mudra (folded hands), offering her prayers. Her lower body flows as the river, behind Shiva’s head and down his right side. A chamara bearing gana stands on the right. Two dogs, one high up above Ganga’s stream, and one low on the right side, almost hidden in a corner, are framing this mythological scene.

The unique features of this composition is the presence of the 2 dogs, which some say, represent the 2 constellations Canis Major and Canis Minor (The Greater Dog and the Lesser Dog). These two constellations are found on either side of the Milky Way. Thus the fact that Ganga also known as Akasha Ganga is descending all the way from outer space (Heaven) is symbolically shown.

One of the Mini Shrines... Me

Chola Gangadharas ...

Cholas not only popularised the Gangadhara, by placing him in many of their temples, as Koshta murthys, they also added a unique dimension by including a miffed Parvathy next to him and creating a new dynamic between them.

The Gangadhara I saw in Valeeswaram comes under this category.

At GKC, Thillayadi, Tanjore Museum - Suresh Priyan and Net.

In Chola Gangadharas, Parvathy is not merely Shiva's consort but a focal point of the sculpture, dominating one half of it. She complements Shiva in stance and posture and is responsible for the aura of romance here. 

The Chola panels focus on the story that Parvathy was not too happy or pleased to have Ganga in Her husband’s hair, literally. And hence they depict an annoyed or petulant Parvati with a body language that conveys Her strong disapproval of the whole ‘arrangement’ of Shiva and Ganga. Usually Parvati’s body is curved away from Shiva, even as He reaches out to placate and reassure her, using his right hand to turn her face towards him.

Although there may be minor variations in the sculptures, they uniformly depict romance, intimacy and humanlike emotions between the Gods, the entire composition, one of grace, balance and fluidity not repeated all that often in our temple sculptures.

At Thiruvattatturai, Mayiladuthurai and Melakadambur - Suresh Priyan and Net

The Pinnacle of Chola Beauty...

The most beautiful Chola Gangadhara belongs to the Lalithambigai Temple at Thirumeeyachur.

Thirumeeyachur - Sudhagee

The artistic merit of this sculpture comes from

• The relative placement of the 2 idols, their superimposition and counterbalancing.
• Parvathy, though, she is facing away from Shiva, seems to give him a surreptitious sideways look.
• Shiva's stance as he balances Ganga with one right hand and placates Parvathy with the other. Both his left hands are almost hidden.
• Parvathi's body language. If you view from the right, she appears miffed. On the other hand, if you look from the left, she seems to be coyly smiling at Shiva.
• Last but not the least, is the expressions of both with a slight smile (புன்முறுவல் / குறுஞ்சிரிப்பு), which captivates the viewer's heart.

In the blowups below, one can appreciate the nuanced sculptural details that make this a masterpiece,

Relative Placement of the idols, Angles and expressions, Hand movements and Ganga

The beauty of this sculpture is best encapsulated in the verse of Thirunavukkarasar (Appar) 

சூடினார் கங்கையாளைச் சூடிய துழனி கேட்டு அங்கு

ஊடினாள் நங்கையாளும் ஊடலை ஒழிக்கவேண்டிப்

பாடினார் சாமவேதம் பாடிய பாணியாலே

ஆடினார் கெடிலவேலி அதிகை வீரட்டனாரே.

When Parvathy came to know that Shiva was adorning himself with Ganga, she was miffed and upset. To placate her he sang the SamaVeda and danced to match his tune.

A few other Gangadharas...

Kailasanathar Temple, Ellora-

This sculptural Panel has many unique features.

• At the top left, Bhagiratha is depicted standing on one leg, performing a rigorous penance. 
• Below him, Ganga is portrayed with folded hands, bowing to Shiva in reverence. Her tail-like lower body artistically symbolizes the flowing river, emphasizing its grace and vitality. 
• Shiva has loosened one of his matted locks to receive the river, significantly reducing its force.
• Shiva stands poised on the Apasmara Purusha (a dwarf symbolizing ignorance), with the divine mother Parvati gracefully positioned by his left side. His expression exudes a sense of tranquility and control.
• From Shiva’s locks, the river cascades into the hands of Rishi Janhu, who gives it the name Jahnavi. The river then flows down the mountains, depicted with vibrant details of fish and other aquatic creatures swimming in its sacred waters.
• Wild animals such as elephants and horses are shown gathering to partake in the celestial waters, symbolizing the river’s life-sustaining power. 
• As Ganga strikes the mountains, it splits into seven streams, represented by seven saluting women at the base of the sculpture. These streams are named Hladini, Pavani, and Nalini, which flow eastwards; Suchakshu, Sita, and Sindhu, which flow westwards; and Ganga herself, who flows southwards under the guidance of Bhagirath.

Cave 1, Elephanta Caves -

One of the few panels, whose lower portion is still intact. A masterpiece in composition, the sense of rhythm here binds the two figures together in a harmonious whole. The depth and relief make it a visual treat.

Shiva, with 4 hands, is standing tall and slim,  with a reclining right leg and the left leg bent at the knee.

Parvati stands gracefully in the tribhanga pose. Her diaphanous lower garment is held in place by a girdle. She wears a simple crown and a few select ornaments. Shiva and Parvati’s posture makes a very unique curve, within which a Gana has been sculpted. Parvati is shown moving away from Shiva and Shiva tries to hold her hand from the top. Parvati’s expression and the whole scene generates a theatrical concept

1. Here, Ganga is being depicted as 3 busts (Goddesses), with her robe flying denoting that she flows in the three worlds.  She is called Mandakini, Bhagirathi and Bhogvati when she flows in heaven, earth and the underground respectively.
2. Baghiratha is shown kneeling down on the lower left corner.
3. The background contains an amazing collection of minor sculptures, which include Brahma and Vishnu.

Temples in Aihole -

Ravan Phadi Cave and Durga Temple - Net and me.

The Ravan Phadi panel shows Shiva in Samabanga, holding his hair out with 2 hands, on either side. Ganga is again depicted as 3 busts, all in Anjali Mudra. Bhagiratha is to his right and Parvathy to his left. The relative proportions and expressions and the simple composition within the available space, makes it a beautiful composition representative of Chalukya art.

The Gangadhara in the Durga temple is a Rishabhantika, with 8 hands, holding a strand of his hair out with his uppermost right hand. There is no Ganga, Parvathy or Bhagiratha here, but Shiva's expression and posture make it a sculpture of rare beauty.

Modern Depictions -

Raja Ravi Varma and other modern depictions - Net

While almost all the ancient sculptures seem to follow the agamas and weave their creativity around the mythological story, in contrast, modern depictions (starting with Ravi Verma), completely ignore these idioms.

The extreme grace, fluidity, emotions and sentiments captured in the Chola and Pallava compositions are completely absent here, leaving you wondering all over again, why Modern Indian Art wants to dissociate from its roots and thrive in a vacuum. Not wanting to adhere to our ancient principles of Art and  representation and not creating a fresh grammar to replace the same, results in cheap imitational art entirely devoid of context or aesthetics.

This contrast only emphasises the fact that Indian Art through the ages had a very well defined context and grammar, whose essence we may need to recapture and reinvent, if we are to produce modern Indian Art which is not merely a clone of the west.

The Pallava 'Mahishasuramardhini'

Over 2 weekends in September 2024, we visited Mamallapuram, as part of the Tamil Heritage Trust's Docent Training Practical sessions. Although, over the years, I've visited Mallai, at least 20 times, on my own and with my friends, this was an entirely different experience.

Badri, Gopu, Ravi, Vallabha and Shivshankar Babu of THT, gave an all too new and additional dimension to the monuments and the sculptures within. What I gained in the process, is not just a fresh insight or a different perspective but an entire additional layer of information, analysis and inference that completely changed my perception of these monuments so far.

Viewed from this fresh angle, what struck me the most, filling me with amazement at Pallavas creativity, is the plethora of Mahishasuramardhinis at Mamallapuram.

Artistically, they are heads and shoulders above most of the Mahishasuramardhinis elsewhere. Over and above the perfect anatomy, grace and rhythm of the Devi and her entourage, or the dynamic quality of the panels including the Asura and his men - these sculptures seemed to whisper to me, something that we are struggling to understand and come to terms with even today.

The identification that I feel with these depictions is so complete, that I was forced to look into the Puranic, Iconic, Historic and sculptural attributes of this form of the Devi, before I could articulate my own personal findings here.

Ellora Cave 16 and Ekambareshwarar Kanchipuram - Harihara Subramanian(Shutterbug Iyer) 

One of the most magnificent and formidable Goddess of the Hindu pantheon, Mahishasuramardini

is worshipped as a supreme power under the Shaktham sect of Hinduism.

Endowed with incredible cosmic super powers, her mission is to destroy evil and establish Dharma. It is her epic battle against the bull-demon Mahishasura that gives her the name. Mahiṣāsuramardinī is an epithet of Durga, literally meaning, "the slayer of the demon Mahisha"

Among Puranas, she is referenced in Agni Purana, Markandeya Purana, Matsya Purana and Vishnu Dharmottara Purana. Among Agamas she is mentioned in The Shakta Agamas, also known as Tantras, that focus on the goddess Shakti or Devi, and include the Tripura Upanishad and the Devi Upanishad. She is also mentioned in the epic Mahabharata.

Her most prominent reference is in Devi Mahatmiyam, a portion of the Markandeya-purana, written around 5th Century CE. It is the first such text that revolves entirely around the figure of the Goddess (Devi) as the primary deity.

The work has been passed down as a self-contained text that is memorized and recited, word for word, as part of the religious practice of those Hindus who worship Devi as the highest divinity.

The Legend...

Mahishasura, the demon, was born as a union of Rambha and a she buffalo (Mahishi) and consequently was a half man and half buffalo. The mighty demon was rendered more powerful as a result of a boon from God Agni, according to which he could be killed only by a woman. He managed to wreak havoc in heaven by chasing away all Gods from there. 

All the Gods then approached lord Vishnu and lord Shiva who were aware that only a woman could kill Mahishasura. They decided to create a Goddess out of the collective powers or 'Tejas' of all the Gods  

Radiant energy emanated from all of them and this dazzling energy coalesced into a brilliant whole which seemed like a never-ending mountain of fire. The mountain of radiant energy transformed into the feminine form of the incomparable Devi – the Adishakti (the primordial being and/or energy).

She was endowed with all divine weapons including the conch (shankh), the spear, the wheel, the lotus, the arrow and the mace. Her trident came from Shiva, Sudarshana Chakra from Vishnu, the Lotus and the kamandlam of Holy water from Brahma, the Lion from Himalayas and bows and arrows from Vayu. The Goddess, filled with combined power and anger of all the Gods, was fierce to behold and her very sight scared the demons. 

Mahishasura waged a valiant fight against her and assumed the form of a buffalo, a lion, a man carrying a sword, an elephant and lastly again a buffalo. The battle raged for 9 days and finally the Goddess was able to pin down Mahishasura and chop off his head. The Gods, rid of the demon, showered the Goddess with innumerable praises and with reverence, prayed her to appear every time they were in need of her. Granting the same to the Gods, she disappeared to appear again when called with devotion.

Folk Art representations across India - From the Net

The Iconography...

Mahishasuramardini is normally depicted as a warrior figure with elaborate jatamukuta and her legs spread out on either side of the lion, similar to a horse rider with either 8 hands or 10 hands, and is mostly shown to be fighting the Mahisha.

Baijnath temple - Himachal Pradesh, Baital-Deul temple - Odisha, Aihole - Karnataka 
Harihara Subramanian(Shutterbug Iyer) 

According to silpasastra, especially from the Vishnumahottara, the Goddess should have ten hands and three eyes, she should wear jata-mukuta on her head with a Chandra-kala (moon). The colour of her body should be like Atasi- flower and eyes should resemble nilotpala. She should have high breasts and in her waist, there should be three bends. In her right hands she should hold Trisula, Chakra, Khadga, bow etc and in her left hands pasa, ankusa, parashu, bell etc. The lion should be at her feet and a severed buffalo demon head should also be there. The right leg of devi should be on the lion and the left leg on the injured but terrified looking Asura who is coming out of the severed body of the buffalo. 

However, normally she is depicted with 8 or 10 arms, with other variations of 4, 6, 12 or more arms. In the eight arms of the Goddess are seen in a clockwise direction, disc, trident, arrow, sword, darjani mudra, the tuft of the hair of the demon, shield and a bow. 

Art Historians have noted that the no of arms is often dependent on the iconography of the Mahishasura and the dynamic composition thus formed.

Mahishasura himself is depicted in 3 major forms. 

• As a hybrid, where his body is human and head that of a buffalo;
• Where he himself is emerging from the severed head of a buffalo;
• A demon in complete animal or theriomorphic form.

From simply killing the demon, specific details emerged over a period of time, like thrusting a trident or lance into his body, squeezing his head or lifting his rear half by his tail etc.

This development of the iconographic portrayal of the Mahishasuramardhini with her lion vahana and the Mahishasura saw a marvelous development in the sculptural art across India, moving from earlier static images to animated dynamic forms which were stand alone or part of narrative panels.

 

Earliest depictions...

Mahishasuramardinis found in Nagar (1stc. BCE – 1stc.CE ), Mathura (c.200CE) L.A County Museum.Gurajala in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh (4thc CE) - From the net.

In the pre Kushana and Kushana era, Mahishasuramardinis are simple in form and lack the complexities of the ‘Devi Mahatmya’ iconographic descriptions.  The devi wears the typical Kushana era styled dhoti and girdle, and carries a sakti (spear) and trisula. The important aspect here is that, the fight between the Devi and the Mahisha is more bare handed with less use of weapons. The Devi has no attendants and even her vahana simha is absent some of the times.

One can also easily trace the evolution of the sculptural form right here, although the core idea is borrowed from the Puranas.  

Later Developments...

Udayagiri Caves, Gupta Period (401 CE), Nalanda, National Museum (600-700 CE),

Chandra Gupta II Coin (375 CE) - From the net

Beside stone representation, there were depictions in Bronze and Gold coins too. In the Nalanda representation, one can see  an iguana below her, which got associated with the Devi in Sakta worship, followed in the Mauryan-Sunga period figures of Mother Goddesses seen with alligators.

The late Gupta period also show her as the Simhavahini where she is four armed, sitting on a lion in Padmaasana.

A few famous Depictions... 

1. Betal Deul Temple in Odisha - The Mahisasuramardini sculpture here is depicted with eight hands. The goddess is seen to be piercing the theomorphic demon with trisula. Her other hands hold weapons like sword, shield, snake etc. A fierce lion is seen to be biting the demon on his hand.  

The Mahisha in the front hiding the lower part of the Devi, her proportions, grace, detailing and the expression on the Devi's face make this one of the best artistic representations through the ages.

2. Durga Temple in Aihole, Karnataka - A full relief panel in classic tradition, this 8 armed Durga is mesmerizing in her grace. Statuesque in her dignity and unperturbed in her demeanor, her face is glowing with peace and contentment. She is not only a young lady, full of charm with high breasts and wide hips, wearing ornaments but also a warrior on battle ground as seen by the weapons and intricately carved armour in her hands. The valour depicted here is truly one of a kind. 

3. Rani ki vav, Gujarat - One of the most exquisite of all Mahishasuramardinis, Goddess Durga in this Solanki sculpture is killing the Mahisha demon in both animal and human form. She is the most ugra of forms and has sixteen hands, yet her expression reveals her innate calmness and inevitable acceptance of her intent and purpose. 

The Pallavas...

Some of the most exquisite Mahishasuramardinis have been created by Pallavas not only in Mallai, but in Kailasanathar Koil in Kanchipuram and other temples as well.

Kanchi Kailasanathar Koil (me) and Panamalai Durga (Rajavel)

Epitome of anatomical grace and beauty, the Pallava Mahishasuramardhini, is personification of a woman, in her head gear, her ornaments, her posture and her expression. In her dynamism and animation, she does not imitate her male counterpart. Her stance, her pose and her battle is her own , fought on her terms.

The sculptural beauty ofcourse peaks with the the 2 narrative panels in Mallai.

Mahishasuramardhini Mandapam, Mallai (me)

This most majestic and well-preserved panel with its fluidic movement and detail, is almost like an animated presentation.

One of the best examples of Pallava art, in the war scene, the goddess appears with eight hands riding a fierce-looking lion. She is holding a khadga(sword), dhanush(bow), bana(arrows), ghanta(bell) in her four right hands. Her four left hands display pasa, sankha, and dagger. An attendant holds a chatra (parasol) over Durga's head. 

She is in the battlefield with her army of female warriors and ganas (dwarfs). She is shown attacking, with arrows, the demon Mahisha, causing him to retreat with his followers. Mahishasura is armed with a gada (club). 

This image of Mahisasuramardini is also unique because, unlike in the majority of the images, the asura appears in his anthropomorphic form, which is his only depiction. There is no decapitated body of the buffalo. On the other hand, he is given equal weightage in the composition, with his stance, a clear indication of retreat and impending defeat.

She is clearly the aggressor, the one charging forward, sitting astride her lion. Her hands are in action, pointing the sword, holding the bow and pulling out arrows and managing all her other weapons. Yet even in this path of destruction and mood and ethos of anger and aggression - her feminine qualities are all too evident. In her attire, demeanour and expression, there is no attempt to imitate the male. She is unique and different and that is displayed in every chisel stroke that has shaped her.

Panel outside Athiranachanda Cave Temple, Mallai (me)

On a separate boulder in front of the Athiranachanda cave temple is this magnificent panel depicting Durga as Mahishasuramardini. One of the best specimens of Pallava art for its aesthetic, dynamic and vivid portrayal of the fight scene and its partcipants, this is considered by Art Historians to be next in sequence, to the Panel above, as here the Goddess has completed annihilation of the demon army, dismounting from her mount over to a lotus pedestal. 

Here the Goddess has 6 arms, carrying all her weapons and she is in the process of alighting from her lion mount. The asura has accepted defeat and is retreating and his demon army is being chased and vanquished by her army of Ganas. Again her feminitity, her prime trait, is supreme. While almost every other figure in the panel is charging or retreating in a violent pose, she is calm. Her mission accomplished, she is sure and secure in her skin.

What is unique about the Pallava Mahishasuramardhini ?

A question that is bound to haunt any art connoisseur is - 'what is it that makes the Pallava depictions of this Goddess unique?' They have something extra, something special, that sets them apart from the hundreds of other depictions all across India, through the ages.

Thorough scrutiny of the sculptural details and attempting to understand their essence, led me to realize that for Pallavas - Durga is a Devi, a Goddess, a woman first and foremost. 

Circumstances may have led her to take on a man's role and don his mantle. She may, well be, out of a traditional womans's role here; not a nurturer, but a destroyer. Her modus operandi is that of the men around - after all she is vanquishing a male prototype - an able bodied, strong, asura - no less. But even in these contradictory circumstances where the ethos is fully male, her femininity, is intact. She is innately a woman - a dignified, graceful, charming entity. She is capable of rising to any occasion, to win her battle in a male dominated scenario without compromising her identity.

The Pallavas thus have embodied the principles of the Puranas where  Mahishasuramardini is the formless divine (nirguna) who assumes form (saguna) to re-establish Dharma or the moral order. In  her saguna she is feminine, she is independent, and she is timeless. As Adishakthi, she feels no need to either merge or compromise her persona, with that of her counterpart.

Only in the Pallava depictions, do we see this very clearly, not only in her physical and anatomical attributes, but her charm, grace and expression of calmness bely her actions. Through the actions of violence, aggression and destruction, she is timelessly embodied as this quintessential woman. Her femininity is her main trait and that is what sets the Pallavas creations apart.

Reiteration of the feminine form - Mallai (me)

It is this essence that makes Pallava Mahishasuramardhini, a role model for the modern woman. Shorn of  her safe physical boundaries and traditional roles, the modern woman finds it very difficult to hold on to her identity.

I have repeatedly questioned myself, both about the way I dress and project myself and about the adoption of a competitive, aggressive non feminine attitude. On one hand, am I thrusting my femininity in the face of others? Do i need to be more unigender in my representation? On the other, am I too loud, too fierce, too male in my stance and attitude? Am I losing my identity in the process?

These are questions faced by every modern woman, trying to come to terms with her ethos and find her true identity and hold onto it, no matter where she may work, or with whom or for that matter, the very nature of her work.

We may well have entered the male bastions and taken on, at least, some of their roles, but in our overall equation with them and society at large, we are women and would like to remain so.

This total acceptance of my persona, my identity, is what the Pallava depictions were urging me to do with their whispers. To be who I am, with no apologies whatsoever. I am a woman, first and foremost. Where I perform or what I choose to do, can not alter this basic fact. I need not always celebrate my gender, but I dont need to hide it either, nor apologise for it.

Timeless art can, not only enhance our aesthetic sensibilities, but at times, also teach us basic life lessons. 

 

A talk by Nobel Laureate Dr. Brian Kobilka

When I came across a flyer for the above, கொஞ்சம் ஆர்வக் கோளாறுலேயும் கொஞ்சம் அசட்டு தைரியத்துலேயும், registered immediately. 

- ஆர்வக் கோளாறு - when else will i get a chance to attend a Nobel Laureate lecture in person?

- அசட்டு தைரியம் - the speaker is bound to know the average knowledge base of the audience. After all it's a public forum.

Came the day, I was happy to be accompanied by Gopu! (who I was sure would understand more than me & may not be averse to a few explanations.)

Let me confess - I left Chemistry and all other Science subjects behind in High School, all of 40+ years back. Am not very updated on current happenings in the Practical Scientific world, leave alone Research! In fact I was happy, Dr. Kobilka is an American and I could at least pronounce his name properly and would understand his accent. (The few times in my life, when my Hollywood addiction is put to good use.)

IIT and Vallabha

This lecture was arranged by IIT Madras under their 'Eminent Speaker Lecture Series' at Music Academy, Chennai. The topic for the talk was 'From Fields to Frontiers: The Journey of a Physician - Scientist'.

The Talk....

At the outset, it was amusing to hear Dr. Kobilka say, 'This was his largest audience and he was nervous!' If most of the audience was like me - he had no idea, how nervous we were.

But surprisingly he started on a non scientific note. Highlighting his background, his academic journey, the various institutes he had associated with etc. This put the audience, at least me - at ease. I was all ears & comprehending. Slowly Science crept in, but I was still in sync - Thanx to the simple Graphic slides!

Dr. Kobilka's Early life....

(Growing Up In Little Falls, Minnesota)

Born into a baker's family in Little Falls, Dr. Kobilka said the town was hardly 8sq miles in area (No more than 3 miles in any direction) with a max population of 7500. The 3D map showed the relative locations of various buildings in the town and his first job was slicing bread in his father's bakery. It was a family owned business run by his grandfather.

He attended St. Mary’s elementary school through the eighth grade then moved onto Little Falls High School. His interest in science started with wanting to become a physician. Alas! there was no usual noble thoughts behind this, but the mere impression that local physicians were given a lot of respect.

His favorite classes in high school were math, physics, chemistry and biology. (Fortunately I had Maths in common with him!)

Undergraduate Years....

After school, he entered the University of Minnesota, Duluth to prepare for medical school, in 1973.

In his very first term, he was lucky enough to meet both his future wife (Dr. Tong Sun Thian) and his mentor Professor Conrad Firling. He met Dr. Tong the very first week, in the Biology Lab, and they seem to have been together since.

Professor Conrad Firling, was a  biology professor, who was willing to take undergraduates into his lab to work on projects in developmental biology. Under him Dr. Kobilka learnt

- first to wash glassware, in a lab, properly.

- later to develop an organ culture medium for studying the salivary glands of some insects and their chromosomes.

(Science was beginning to creep in & I've no idea what those insects were!)

He also worked on a summer project with Professor Robert Carlsen, an organic chemist and this sowed the seed for a growing interest in basic research.

Majoring in Biology and Chemistry, he applied to ten medical schools, but was selected only in 2. Fortunately for him, one of them was Yale and he moved there from Duluth. 

Yale University Medical School....

At Yale, as part of their curriculum, all medical students were required to write a thesis based on original research. 

Dr. Kobilka's very first research project involved dengue fever, on which he worked, through a summer in a lab in Malaysia, involving both field and bench research.

For his thesis project, he worked with Professor Denis Knudsen, a virologist, studying the genetic diversity of rotavirus, a common cause of gastroenteritis in children.

According to him, both these projects were not successful, because they were short termed and gave no fresh scientific insights, into their respective domains. Their only benefit was reinforcing the passion for pure research in him.

After his first year of Med School, he married Tong Sun, who was not a Doctor yet.

Clinical Training At Barnes Hospital...

Owing to financial constraints, a career in research was not an immediate option and Dr. Kobilka decided on a residency in internal medicine at Barnes Hospital, affiliated with Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, Missouri, for 3 years.

Dr. Kobilka explained that The Human nervous system can be divided into two functional parts: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system regulates many of the internal organs through a balance of two aspects, or divisions. The two divisions of the autonomic nervous system are the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. The sympathetic system is associated with the fight-or-flight response, and parasympathetic activity is referred to by the epithet of rest and digest. Homeostasis is the balance between the two systems. At each target effector, dual innervation determines activity. For example, the heart receives connections from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. One causes heart rate to increase, whereas the other causes heart rate to decrease.

During his training at Barnes, his interest in intensive care medicine, led him to continuously take rotations at the 3 intensive care units - medical, pulmonary and cardiac. Here he found that, patients were typically unstable and required urgent medication

-  to regulate their heart rate and blood pressure

-  to control pain.

He went onto mention that these medications acted on GPCRs (G protein coupled receptors), which are of several types.

Those regulating BP and pulse are called adrenergic and muscarinic receptors, while those controlling pain are opioid receptors.

By now, I was at sea and slowly drowning. The talk was going above my head. I, ofcourse, went back and googled and somewhat surfaced from deep water. Sharing some of that here....

What are GPCRs?

GPCRs are proteins located in the cell membrane that binds extracellular substances and transmits signals from these substances to an intracellular molecule called a G protein (guanine nucleotide-binding protein). 

GPCRs are found in the cell membranes of a wide range of organisms, including mammals, plants, microorganisms, and invertebrates. There are numerous different types of GPCRs—some 1,000 types are encoded by the human genome alone—and as a group they respond to a diverse range of substances, including light, hormones, amines, neurotransmitters, and lipids.

Nearly every function of the human body, from sight and smell to heart rate and neuronal communication, depends on G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). Lodged in the fatty membranes that surround cells, they detect hormones, odours, chemical neurotransmitters and other signals outside the cell, and then convey their messages to the interior by activating one of several types of G protein. The G protein, in turn, triggers a plethora of other events. The receptors make up one of the largest families of human proteins and are the targets of one-third to one-half of drugs. Working out their atomic structure will help researchers to understand how this central cellular-communication system works, and could help drug-makers to design more effective treatments. 

The Net

A GPCR is made up of a long protein that has three basic regions: an extracellular portion (the N-terminus), an intracellular portion (the C-terminus), and a middle segment containing seven transmembrane domains. 

Beginning at the N-terminus, this long protein winds up and down through the cell membrane, with the long middle segment traversing the membrane seven times in a serpentine pattern. The last of the seven domains is connected to the C-terminus. 

When a GPCR binds a ligand (a molecule that possesses an affinity for the receptor), the ligand triggers a conformational change in the seven-transmembrane region of the receptor. This activates the C-terminus, which then recruits a substance that in turn activates the G protein associated with the GPCR. Activation of the G protein initiates a series of intracellular reactions that end ultimately in the generation of some effect, such as increased heart rate in response to epinephrine or changes in vision in response to dim light.

The existence of GPCRs was demonstrated in the 1970s by American physician and molecular biologist Robert J. Lefkowitz. Lefkowitz shared the 2012 Nobel Prize for Chemistry with his colleague Brian K. Kobilka, who helped to elucidate GPCR structure and function.  

In 1984, after his residency, Kobilka applied for cardiology fellowships, and he was particularly interested in the program with Robert Lefkowitz at Duke University in Durham, North Carolina. It was the premier lab studying receptors for adrenaline, which had become a model system for all hormone receptors. This gave him the opportunity to explore basic research in an area relevant to cardiovascular and intensive care medicine. 

It is interesting to note that Dr. Kobilka, never became a cardiologist.

With his young family started in St. Louis.

Fellowship Training At Duke University...

Joining the Lefkowitz lab, Dr. Kobilika found that, almost everybody there, seemed to know more than him and he was yet to familiarise himself with the research work being done there and the techniques they were using.

When Kobilka joined, the lab was just starting to think about how to clone the gene for the β2 adrenergic receptor (β2AR)  and determine its genetic sequence. But the receptor was produced in such small amounts that the team was only able to collect enough protein to work out a few scraps of its likely genetic sequence. 

From now on, we were in the midst of Scientific talk about Scientific research, and there was a lot, that I did not understand or misunderstood. I tried correcting a lot of my misunderstandings with further reading, but there may still be errors here - a direct result of my limited understanding.

Kobilka, joining the programme, decided to construct a library of mammalian genomic sequences and screen it with the scraps of sequences they had. This would pull out longer clones that could be pieced together to reveal the full sequence. However, when the team stitched together the receptor sequence, it had a real Eureka moment: several strings of amino acids that are typically found in cell membranes showed that the receptor snaked through the membrane seven times, just like rhodopsin, the light-detecting receptor in the retina that was also known to activate a G protein. 

It was a surprise that, these receptors looked alike,  one turned on by light, and the other by a hormone.

At the time, about 30 proteins were known to turn on G proteins, and they concluded that it was a whole family of look alike receptors. This family became known as seven-transmembrane receptors, or GPCRs, and is now known to have nearly 800 members in humans. 

Dr. Kobilika, then, wanted to understand receptor structure and how the receptor worked in molecular detail. Thus the project extended to obtaining a crystal structure. Several years earlier Deisenhofer and Huber had obtained the first crystal structure of a membrane protein, proving that membrane proteins could be crystallized and demonstrating the value of protein structure in understanding mechanisms. However, the photosynthetic reaction center was a naturally abundant protein that could be obtained from bacteria. In contrast, even in lung tissue, where the β2AR was most abundant, it represented a very small fraction of membrane proteins.

Stanford University...

Around this time (1989), at Stanford, Professor Richard (Dick) Tsien, had just moved from Yale, and was building a new Department of Molecular and Cellular Physiology in the Beckman Center. Dr. Kobilka was offered a junior faculty position, which he accepted and moved to Stanford. To make ends meet, he moonlighted as a doctor in the emergency department at weekends. 

In the lab they focused on two objectives: 

- understanding the structure and mechanism of activation of the β2AR and 

- determining the physiologic role of specific adrenergic receptor subtypes. 

Cloning and pharmacological studies had identified 9 adrenergic receptor subtypes coded by 9 different genes: three βARs, three α1ARs, and three α2ARs. The drugs available at that time were not sufficiently selective to allow assignment of specific functions to each receptor subtype. 

Dr. Kobilka wanted to see what the receptor looked like in three dimensions using X-ray crystallography, in which a beam of X-rays is fired at a protein crystal and the resultant diffraction pattern is used to reveal the arrangement of its atoms. However to produce an intelligible X-ray diffraction pattern, one first needed to crystallize the receptor- a formidable process of packing millions of identical copies of protein so tightly that they form a solid that looks like a microscopic shard of glass. 

Working out the conditions that will allow a protein to crystallize can take years, and membrane proteins such as GPCRs are the hardest of all: they must be coaxed out of the membrane intact, but it is the membrane that holds them in shape. GPCRs are also constantly shifting into various states, and most are expressed in very low quantities. To collect enough β2AR protein, one had to express about 100-1,000 times the levels at which it is normally produced in a cell. Later, they also used fluorescence spectroscopy, one of the most sensitive biophysical techniques, to investigate receptor structure.

Gopu & Rajagopal V

As the years rolled by, Kobilka's lab was carrying out various biochemistry and biophysics experiments aimed at getting to know the β2AR more intimately, and he was inching forwards in expressing and purifying the protein. But there were a lot of setbacks. They found that the GPCRs have big, floppy loops inside and outside and the receptor writhes and squirms, adopting a variety of levels of activation, which only made crystallization more and more difficult.

 

Finally, in late 2004, the group managed to grow tiny crystals, too small to be analysed at Stanford's synchrotron facility. Based on the suggestions of Gebhard Schertler, a crystallographer, Kobilka took his samples to the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) in Grenoble, France, which had the tightly focused beamline needed to analyse such small crystals. 

But the crystals diffracted to a resolution of only around 20 angstroms - so low that there was no discernible image. A resolution of about 4 A is needed to see the organization of individual atoms.

Further frustration followed, when the team couldn't get the crystals to grow any bigger or diffract any better. The receptor's changeable activation states and floppy segments, made it very difficult to trap all the proteins in an identical conformation. The team realized that they'd have to do something radical: chop off the loose ends, and either anchor the loop in place with an antibody or replace it altogether with a protein known to crystallize well.

The two approaches....

In 2005 Dan Rosenbaum and Søren Rasmussen, two very talented and intrepid postdoctoral fellows, joined the lab with the goal of crystallizing the β2AR. Søren and Dan took two different approaches to generate better quality crystals of the β2AR. 

Søren identified antibodies that bound to a particularly flexible region of the receptor and Dan used protein engineering to replace the same region of the β2AR with T4 lysozyme (T4L), a highly crystallizable soluble protein. During 2006 crystals were obtained using both approaches combined with a newly developed lipid-based media known as bicelles consisting of a mixture of lipid and detergent. Initial crystals of the β2AR-Fab (3.4A) and the β2AR-T4L (2.8A) fusion protein complex, both diffracted to below 4A. 

A trio of papers marked a milestone in structural biology, and intensified aggressive research into GPCR structures.

But these GPCR structures had been snapshots of receptors in an inactive state. To really understand the receptor's workings, researchers needed to see it as it was being activated by a ligand and turning on the G protein. This project was even more technically daunting than the last. The protein complex was too big to hold in the fatty scaffold; the G protein kept falling off; and this time, the extracellular part of the receptor wouldn't sit still for crystallization. 

Dr. Kobilka reached out to all manner of experts for help and the various groups developed a detergent for stabilizing the receptor with its G protein; a lipid scaffold that could support the complex; and an antibody that could hold it together. And then they tested thousands upon thousands of crystallization conditions and ways to engineer the protein.

Finally, after another 5 years, they solved it and got a resolution of 3.2A revealing a tangled molecular threesome: β2AR with a ligand clasped at one end and the G protein nested up on the other. 

The β2AR-Gs crystal structure was published in 2011 together with two companion studies using single particle electron microscopy and deuterium exchange mass spectrometry to characterize the dynamic aspects of this complex. These combined studies provided unprecedented insights into GPCR signaling at a molecular level.

It was for this pioneering work, that, The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2012 was awarded jointly to Robert J. Lefkowitz and Brian K. Kobilka "for studies of G-protein-coupled receptors."

Brian. K. Kobilika receiving his Nobel Prize from H M King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden
at the Stockholm Concert Hall on 10th Dec 2012.

After this climax, there were 2 more sections of Epilogue...

Why 20 long years?

Gopu R

According to Dr. Kobilka, this entire research took almost 20 years mainly because

-  It was a new field and they almost started from scratch

-  They had to learn how the receptors are built, how they transmit signals over the membrane and how they are regulated

-   Purifying the Protein, Crystallizing it to a high level of resolution in both their active and inactive stages, ensuring their stability, even when drawn out of their shells - all took their own time.

-   The mechanisms for diffraction were also not so developed and Computer Docking was in its developmental stage.

The entire team managed to sustain their interests, hopes and irrational optimism through these years because

-  They constantly achieved incremental advances & successes that kept their hopes alive.

-  They were simultaneously learning so many new things about the Human nervous system, especially with respect to the GPCR.

-  The nurturing scientific & academic environment of which they were a part.

-  Their family and friends and the entire scientific fraternity and last but not the least, his wife, who worked with him every step of the way, supporting him both professionally and personally.

-  His own temperament, love for his work and the sheer joy he derived in research.

His post Nobel Work....

I had very poor understanding of this section and the Graphs shown.

This part of the lecture is paraphrased in my own words.

Along with a team Professor Brian Kobilka, discovered the drug called PZM21 after evaluating some three million different compounds. His research is mainly aimed at finding an alternate to Morphin as a painkiller.

Morphine, derived from the opium poppy, works by acting on a receptor in the brain that reduces pains, but it also affects a different receptor that can lead to fatal breathing problems in the event of an overdose. But PZM21, which so far has only been tested on mice, appears to act on the first receptor to about the same level as morphine without significantly changing the second one.

It also caused less constipation than opiate drugs, a factor that limits how much of the drug can be given. The new drug dulls the feeling of pain in the brain because it has a “potent, selective and efficacious” effect on the brain receptor involved in the sensation of pain, without dangerous side effects.  

Studied against Morphine, on mice, PZM21 did not appear to affect their breathing and the painkilling effect of PZM21 lasted for up to three hours, “substantially longer” than the maximum dose of morphine. The “constipating effect” was also “substantially less than morphine” and the mice did not show signs of addiction.

Morphine addiction is a result of the activation of the brain’s dopamine reward circuits. When this happens in mice, they tend to run about a lot. But PZM21 had “no apparent effect on locomotion”.

Vallabha Srinivasan

What is PZM21?

PZM21 is an experimental opioid analgesic drug that is being researched for the treatment of pain. It is claimed to be a functionally selective μ-opioid receptor agonist which produces μ-opioid receptor mediated G protein signaling, with potency and efficacy similar to morphine, but with less β-arrestin 2 recruitment.

In tests on mice, PZM21 was slightly less potent than morphine or TRV130 as an analgesic, but also had significantly reduced adverse effects, with less constipation than morphine, and very little respiratory depression, even at high doses.  

Dr. Kobilka concluded his lecture, by thanking his team & family and introducing them via pics.

Rajagopal V

My own take aways from the lecture

- As a speaker Dr. Kobilka was not flashy, aggressive or imposing. Rather soft spoken, his talk was delivered like a classroom lecture in a low sonorous voice.

- Yet he was very impressive. Kept the audience fairly hooked.

- The 2 main aids to this were - His presentation slides, that were simple, clear and precise and 

- His own unbridled passion for his work that came through even when he was describing complex and inanimate Protein structures.

Lastly, I must read up, atleast about Basics, before attending such lectures, if I want to optimise the experience.

Acknowledging Vallabha, Vidya, RV, Jayakamala & their kids - 

என் சக ஆர்வலப் பயணிகள்!

A big Thank you to Gopu, who made this an enjoyable experience and matched my every step in weathering sudden winds, rains, pot hole filled roads and Chennai peak hour Traffic to attend this lecture. The upturned umbrella and his valiant attempt to turn it back remains etched in my mind!

It seemed like a metaphor.

Standing exposed in ur ignorance, as science rains all around u.

Thankfully, he straightened the umbrella soon!